Cinematography is the process of transforming ideas into moving images using cameras, lenses, and other technologies. It’s perhaps the most crucial part of bringing a movie or TV script to life, turning words on a page into vivid, visual experiences on screen

For a comprehensive yet concise explanation of what great cinematography involves, look no further than to two-time Oscar winner and DP Roger Deakins on his approach to shooting movies.

Cinematography is the heart of visual storytelling. A film can’t become a film without cinematography, just as a photo can’t become a photo without photography.

But beyond the basics of capturing moving images on a camera, cinematography serves a variety of storytelling purposes.

On average, a movie contains over 1,000 shots, with the typical shot lasting around four seconds.¹ Cinematography helps direct the viewer’s eye to the most essential elements of the shot, shaping their understanding of the moment and making it easy to follow and enjoy the film as a whole.

The look and pacing of shots is instrumental in setting the emotional mood of a scene. Fast-paced fight sequences with closeups of landing fists and flailing limbs can leave a viewer’s heart racing, while a long-lasting static shot can inspire a sense of calm.

This intercut sequence from Jurassic Park III proves the emotional power of cinematography. Notice the contrast between the tense, chaotic scene on the island and the calm, domestic setting of the house? What visual choices are being made to create this contrast?

According to Cinematographer Shane Hurlbut (Act of Valor, Terminator Salvation), “The light, the way the camera moves, the way the story is told, the composition… everything is driven from character emotion.”

Cinematographers often compose shots in a way that showcases the perspective or internal feelings of a character. For instance, if a camera is looking down at a character, it can enforce the idea that they’re small or scared. If a camera looks up at a character, it often makes them look strong and heroic.

There are many compelling ways cinematography can reveal a character’s psychological state. Take a look at how this powerful shot from In Cold Blood is able to enhance the character’s perspective.

Filmmakers can use cinematography to convey a deeper thematic meaning.

For instance, although Schindler’s List is primarily shot in black and white, Steven Spielberg decided to show the deep red of a young child’s coat as she walked through a violent environment. This intentional choice of cinematography powerfully highlights her innocence without uttering a single word.

Cinematography can be used to immerse viewers into the world of the story. This could be achieved through establishing shots like sweeping aerial shots or detailed montages.

Lighting and color can also play a huge part in worldbuilding. For instance, the high-contrast, saturated cinematography in Mad Max: Fury Road establishes a unique post-apocalyptic environment.

The art and craft of cinematography relies on a few core components:

Lighting choices can greatly impact the visibility, focus, and emotional effect of any given film.

For instance, film noir, which enjoyed its heyday in the 1940s, relied on low-key lighting to emphasize the oftentimes dark and even criminal tales being told on screen. In contrast, high-key lighting, which minimizes shadow and darkness, is the usual go-to for broad comedies and other genres that tend to be more optimistic or upbeat.

Regardless of genre, lighting is always a fundamental consideration that a cinematographer can use to direct a viewer’s eye and subtly influence the tone of the film.

Check out this video’s overview of some of the many ways cinematographers paint a scene with light.

From Martin Scorsese to Greta Gerwig, this video covers how some of the most talented filmmakers use shot composition to tell their story.

The arrangement of visual elements within a frame, including the characters, props, background environment, and action, is known as a shot’s composition.

There are many creative and technical elements that go into the final look of the scene within the frame:

Aspect ratio
Aspect ratio is the ratio of an image’s width to its height.

Since the inception of motion pictures, aspect ratio has varied greatly based on camera and screen technology. If you watch a movie from the 1940s on a modern TV, for instance, you might notice black bars on the side of the screen. This is because older films had an aspect ratio closer to 4:3, while most modern flatscreen TVs use the wider aspect ratio of 16:9. With the introduction of high-definition video in the 1990s, it has become industry standard to use the more immersive 16:9 aspect ratio. 

However, some filmmakers purposefully use a different aspect ratio to help them tell their story. For instance, Darren Aronofsky’s 2022 film The Whale uses a 4:3 aspect ratio to emphasize the protagonist’s claustrophobia and sense of limitations as he refuses to leave his apartment.

Camera placement
Where a cinematographer chooses to place the camera in relation to the action and/or characters can heighten the meaning of a particular scene.

For instance, perhaps the scene being shot is a date at a restaurant. If the cinematographer decides to place the camera far from the couple at dinner, the audience may sense that they are spying on an intimate moment. Or the space between the camera and couple might be used to mirror the emotional distance between the two individuals on the date.

Conversely, should the cinematographer decide to place the camera right at the dinner table, the effect could be one of claustrophobia. That one or both of the individuals on the date feels pressure to be or act a certain way. With every single shot, the cinematographer is making a choice about how the camera placement will influence the emotional weight of the scene.

Depth of field/focus
Have you ever noticed that in some shots, you can see in detail everything in the frame? And that at other times, perhaps only what is in the foreground or background is discernible?

This aspect of cinematography ties back to depth of field and focus. Citizen Kane is a famous example of shooting a film in deep focus to allow everything in frame to be crisp and clear, and it’s the purview of the cinematographer to decide what they want to say with depth of field in every shot.

Color
Cinematographers can use camera filters, lighting gels, lighting temperatures, or in-scene color to achieve a desired effect. For instance, color filters can help to heighten particular hues or block others. They can be used to emphasize a specific time or place, such as the iconic use of green filters to separate the simulated world from reality in The Matrix.

Filmmakers could similarly use color theory to compose a shot and influence the look and feel of a scene.

Damien Chazelle‘s Academy Award-winning musical La La Land is a great example of how a shot’s color composition can be used to enhance storytelling. Watch this video for a detailed breakdown of the film’s gorgeous cinematography. 

Camera movement can also change how an audience views a film.

Consider the difference it would make while shooting a car chase if the cinematographer decided to keep the camera in a single location instead of following the action. Would the scene hold as much intensity if the audience watched the chase from a distance as the cars gave pursuit instead of staying in the thick of the conflict with the vehicles?

In a courtroom drama, a static camera could be used to heighten tension. With nowhere to escape, the audience is immediately forced to watch and wait while both sides argue their case to convince the jury to hand over a guilty or innocent verdict.

All to say, the decision to move or not move the camera all depends on what works better for the scene.

Check out this iconic tracking shot from Martin Scorsese’s Goodfellas. How does it make you feel? Would it have the same impact as multiple shots? 

Lens choice can make a huge impact on a shot’s lighting and composition. It is through a particular lens that a cinematographer can achieve deep focus, a zooming effect, or other specific visual qualities.

Some lens elements that a cinematographer might consider include:

Focal length
Measured in millimeters, the focal length determines how much of a scene the lens captures.

• The human eye tends to see the world at a focal length of around 50mm, making it a popular choice for cinematographers.
• A shorter focal length, such as 14mm, can capture a scene at a much wider angle, making it great for wide landscape shots and establishing shots.
• A longer focal length, such as 120mm, is often used for capturing small details that typically go unnoticed by a human eye, or filming a scene from far away.

Zoom lens vs prime lens
As the name suggests, zoom lenses allow the camera operator to easily zoom in and out between different focal lengths. They could be a great choice for a shot that requires zooming in or out, or fast-paced productions that don’t have a lot of setup time.

However, prime lenses, which have fixed focal lengths, are generally of much higher quality than zoom lenses, and are thus the go-to lenses for most professional filmmakers.

Lens flare
Lens selection can determine how light sources behave within a shot. For instance, if a filmmaker wants a horizontal beam of light to flare across the frame, they might use an anamorphic lens to achieve the effect.

Special abilities
While cinema prime lenses tend to be the most popular lens type for professional filmmakers, many go to great lengths to achieve a certain composition. Director Stanley Kubrick famously worked with NASA to secure a lens capable of shooting interior scenes only lit by candlelight.²

The type of camera being used to capture the images greatly influences what a cinematographer is able to achieve in terms of the image quality and overall look. 

Digital vs film cameras
Cameras that shoot on film typically carry an organic, unique aesthetic. Video produces sharper, cleaner images without the natural grain of film, and is generally cheaper and easier to use.

While some filmmakers like Christopher Nolan and Quentin Tarantino prefer the style and look of film, modern film emulation technology can now closely mimic the texture, color, and behavior of traditional film stocks.

Cinematographer Devan Scott breaks down how the 2023 film The Holdovers was able to recreate the 1970s film look despite being shot on a digital camera.  

Image quality
Also seen as “resolution,” image quality is measured differently between film and video. In video, images are captured using pixels, which, depending on how high or low (4K, 8K, 1080p, for example) resolution, can drastically affect the way things in a movie are seen.

It’s necessary for a cinematographer to choose a camera that fits the needs and future plans of the film. For instance, Netflix requires their content to be shot in at least a 4k resolution, and provides an overview of all the minimum specs a camera must have on their productions. 

Likewise, if a film requires visual effects, shooting in 8k can make it easier for the VFX team to manipulate the footage.

Camera accessories
A cinematographer must make sure their camera is compatible with the accessories needed to shoot the scene. This could include things like tripods, stabilizer gimbals, matte boxes, focus kits, monitors, and audio recording devices. 

Speciality cameras
There are many instances where the director wants a very specific type of shot that’s nearly impossible to achieve with standard camera equipment. A cinematographer might work with specialized equipment like high-speed cameras, infrared cameras, or IMAX cameras as needed.

This video takes a look at the stylistic choices that Oscar-nominated Cinematographer Rachel Morrison often makes on her films.

The cinematographer, who may also be referred to as the director of photography, is the person who heads up all decisions related to the visual components of a film’s shots. They work with the director to find the style and tone that best allows audiences to disappear into the story.

Some directors may choose to largely concentrate on the performance of their actors and other filmmaking elements, allowing the cinematographer more discretion regarding the visual storytelling aspect of the movie. Other directors may collaborate very closely with the cinematographer and regularly offer their input as to how the film should look.

Throughout the filmmaking process, a cinematographer has a variety of responsibilities…

Before a cinematographer can start planning shots, they must work with the director to settle on the overall look of the film. Together, they might develop a mood board or online deck, filling it with photos, clips, and references for inspiration.

This duty goes further than face value. For instance, what if Raging Bull (1980) hadn’t been shot in black and white? Or Blade Runner (1982) was shot entirely in natural daylight?

Both would be entirely different films – not just in appearance, but in meaning. This is because the look of the film helps to inform both the world it is portraying and the themes its story is conveying.

With rare exception, the director, cinematographer, and the rest of the production team know what each and every scene in a film will look like prior to walking on set… all on account of the storyboards that are made in pre-production.

Oscar-winning Cinematographer Wally Pfister gets into the specifics of what takes place during the previsualization process, as well as how he approaches visual effects.

Storyboards provide a visual guideline for how each shot will be captured during principal photography, and their importance cannot be overestimated.

It’s critical that the director and cinematographer are in agreement about how the film will look once they move into production. By viewing and discussing the storyboards beforehand, they can resolve ahead of time any miscommunications or differences of opinion they may have about the film’s look.

The relationship between storyboarding and cinematography is a close one. This video demonstrates how the former influences the latter.

Similarly, shot lists are fundamental to a well-oiled and smoothly running film set. No matter if you’re shooting a super indie film or a huge blockbuster movie, time is very much money when it comes to filmmaking.

A shot list clearly and concisely tells the entire production crew what they should expect to shoot every day on set. This allows all the various departments to move with expediency from one set up to the next based on the day’s shot list.

Given that the cinematographer is the person in charge of each shot, it’s vital that they have a well-drawn-out shot list to work with during their time on a production.

A cinematographer is responsible for deciding what equipment can best serve the needs of their production, weighing in the desired result and the technical knowledge of the camera crew. Depending on the size of the production, a cinematographer may have an entire camera crew that can help in making those decisions and bringing the vision of the cinematographer to life. That is why one of the most important decisions that a cinematographer can make is who they want to collaborate with on the film.

If you’re curious about the more technical aspects of cinematography in film, this video provides an in-depth look at how Gordon Willis achieved some of his most acclaimed work.

A scene’s location can be a help or hindrance in filmmaking, and a good cinematographer will know how to make it the former. They’ll visit the location before filming, analyzing the space and how light moves across the location throughout the day. 

As an example, let’s say a production is filming in winter. While a prairie landscape covered in snow might be stunning in person, that same location may fall flat on screen because of the lack of texture and color. The cinematographer will know how best a location can support the acting, story, and other cinematic elements, and what adjustments could be made to help it shine on-screen.

The cinematographer might have in mind how they want to position the camera and set up the lighting for a particular shot, but the reality of filmmaking is that it’s not a great shot if the actors aren’t captured successfully in it.

That doesn’t necessarily mean having an actor perfectly centered in a shot, but that’s why the cinematographer will often attend rehearsals to see how the actors are moving in a particular shot and adjust their camera and lighting set-ups accordingly.

The cinematographer leads the entire camera department, including the gaffer, grip, camera operator, focus puller, and best boy, throughout production. While they take ownership of the camera and lighting, they continue to collaborate with the director through each take, ensuring the final shot compliments the director’s vision.

Production can often be chaotic and full of variables, from unexpected weather, to broken equipment, to a shot simply not hitting as planned. Because of this, cinematographers must be able to pivot and problem solve on a dime.

While “we’ll fix it in post” has become somewhat of a joke on set, it’s a cinematographer’s responsibility to ensure the camera department is providing quality shots that the post-production team can work with. This includes ensuring proper exposure for color grading, shooting for visual effect integration, and making sure the light source is consistent throughout different takes and reverse shots for seamless editing.

In the earliest days of cinema, the director of the film was often also the cinematographer and/or camera operator. This is because the medium was just beginning to find its way, and so a filmmaking unit might have been just one or two people, requiring them to wear multiple hats.

But as filmmaking began to flourish and became more sophisticated, the need to separate responsibilities was more apparent. And so the role of cinematographer, also known as the director of photography, was created.

As the visibility of this position grew, more than a dozen of film’s earliest cinematographers, among them Robert Newhard and Victor Milner, decided to organize and form the American Society of Cinematographers in 1919.

The American Society of Cinematographer’s purpose: “To advance the art of cinematography through artistry and technological progress, and to cement a closer relationship among cinematographers to exchange ideas, discuss techniques and promote cinema as an art form.”

Just two years after the formation of this still-running organization, the first ASC credit in a film was given to another founding member John H. August, for Sand in 1920. 

Ever since, the prominence of cinematography in film has only continued to grow. Its importance is evident not only through recognition at ceremonies such as the Academy Awards, but also the growth of higher education programs focused solely on the craft of cinematography. 

Multiple film schools across the United States and throughout the world now offer classes for aspiring cinematographers. Given the dual nature of the profession, one that encompasses both artistic vision and technical competence, the role of cinematographer can be a highly fulfilling one for a person passionate about both pursuits.

For the majority of cinematic history, movies were shot on rolls of film. However, in 1995, Panasonic and Sony released the first digital camcorder, transforming the industry forever.

Though digital cameras were, at first, low-quality when compared to film, they were typically cheaper and easier to use than film cameras. Over time, digital cameras evolved more and more, and now over 70% of high-budget films are shot on digital cameras.³

With the introduction of computer-generated effects, cinematographers now have more options than ever in terms of having available resources to get a desired shot. Special effects, including in-camera effects, as well as digital visual effects have paved the way for groundbreaking cinematography.

For instance, did you know Director James Cameron wanted to make Avatar in the 1990s, but had to wait for the technology to catch up to his vision?⁴ With advancements in digital camera and facial capture technologies, he and his cinematographer Mauro Fiore were able to bring the world of Pandora to life, earning the film the Academy Award for Best Cinematography.

Throughout the history of cinema, filmmakers have continuously left their mark on the art of cinematography. Here are a few standout examples of cinematography elevating a movie’s overall effect…

When asked what films aspiring cinematographers should check out, Schwartzman had a clear response: “This is very simple: Citizen Kane. Every modern technique of camera movement, angles, and lighting is used in this masterpiece.”

While Citizen Kane’s innovations turned some audiences away in 1941, it completely transformed the way filmmakers look at cinema, and regularly tops the list of the best films of all time. It’s credited for a number of cinematography techniques that are still used today, including deep focus, low angle shots, creative crane shots, dissolves, and high-contrast lighting.

Director David Lean and Cinematographer Freddie Young helped usher in an era of wide-screen cinema with their epic Lawrence of Arabia. Its wide, sweeping landscape shots proved how effective cinematography can be at elevating the story-world, and even treating the location as its own character.

Cinematographer Geoffrey Unsworth revolutionized the look of science fiction films in Stanley Kubrick’s 2001: A Space Odyssey.

He showed how in-camera effects and meticulously planned shot compositions can make out-of-this-world locations and objects feel grounded and realistic.

With minimal dialogue, the filmmakers relied on brilliant uses of visual imagery to tell much of the story, as well as symmetry and high-contrast lighting to create some unforgettable shots.

Director Wes Anderson is renowned for his wildly colorful, symmetrical, and whimsical visual style. In The Grand Budapest Hotel, cinematographer Robert D. Yeoman took the aesthetic to unforgettable heights, and earned an Oscar nomination for his work.

The film plays with symmetry, changing aspect ratios, a vibrant pastel color palette, practical effects, and rhythmic camera movements to capture a unique storybook aesthetic that feels both nostalgic and enchanting.

For the incredibly complicated World War I movie 1917, Roger Deakins was tasked with making the film appear as though it was all accomplished in one continuous take. The movie itself is a shining example of allowing the cinematography to be the chief storyteller behind the picture. While there are many standout sequences we could use as an example to support this, watch this Battlefield Run Scene that takes places near the film’s climax as an exemplar of the astounding camerawork this movie offers. It’s simultaneously harrowing and breathtaking.

In the 2024 Best Picture nominee Nickel Boys, Cinematographer Jomo Fray redefined filmic immersion by shooting the entire film from the protagonist’s perspective. This bold approach placed audiences directly in the character’s shoes, allowing them to experience the discrimination and injustice he faces first-hand.

Fray not only had to develop the right camera rig for POV filming,  but he also had to move and react with the precision and emotional timing of an actor. This risky idea proved to be a one-of-a-kind triumph, and earned the film widespread critical acclaim. Check out the behind-the-scenes action below.

Cinematography is an evolving craft subject to changes in technology and audience preferences. While the fundamentals of the artform will remain, there are many changes on the horizon that might redefine what cinematography looks like.

Camera accessories are also becoming more advanced, such as Arri’s new Trinity 2 camera stabilization systems that make it much easier for a solo camera operator to execute dynamic camera movements. Because of these developments, it’s going to become a lot easier for productions, small and large, to shoot complex, high-quality footage.

With younger audiences watching most of their content on their phones, vertical video is skyrocketing in popularity. Some production companies, especially in China, have even been making vertical drama miniseries to embrace the trend.⁵

Shifting from a horizontal frame to a vertical frame will force cinematographers to rethink many of the rules and standards of cinematography. Will the rule of thirds no longer apply? How can you establish a location without a wide shot? What cameras are best for vertical cinematography? All these are questions that will be explored as vertical video becomes more popular.

AI film production startups are attracting millions of dollars in VC funding, and some films are being made using generative AI technology.⁶

These changes could drastically impact the role of a cinematographer. Instead of physically capturing the location establishing shots, for example, filmmakers might decide it’s cheaper and just as effective to generate the shot using AI. This could especially be the case for traditionally expensive period pieces or science fiction films. In this scenario, cinematographers might pivot to visual curators, using their expertise to craft prompts, adjust lighting and composition, and approve shots.

Even if generative AI doesn’t appear in their final cut, cinematographers and directors might use AI to improve their pre-production workflow. Storyboarding, for example, could shift from hand drawn images to AI generated shots that more accurately depict the scene composition and camera movement.

The slow but steady growth of virtual reality and augmented reality can also expand the definition and best practices associated with cinematography. In early 2025, Blackmagic released an Ursa Cine Immersive camera that allows filmmakers to capture 3D immersive video compatible with the Apple Vision Pro.

Cinematographers who work on immersive video projects will have to truly think beyond the frame, as viewers can look and occasionally move around the film environment. They can no longer rely on a camera angle to direct a viewer’s eye, but rather other visual cues naturally occurring within the environment. They’ll also have to consider the comfort of a viewer using immersive technology. For instance, moving backwards and sideways or abruptly cutting between different locations can be dizzying for viewers.

If you’re looking to enter the field of cinematography, there’s no better way to get a jump on your education than by familiarizing yourself with some key terms of the craft.

The 180-degree rule is a system used to orient the viewer within a scene. Action in a scene should advance along a straight line, keeping the camera on just a single side of that action. Also called the axis of action.

The 30-degree rule is a principle used to prevent awkward jump cuts. When two sequential shots focus on the same character or object, the camera should be moved at least 30 degrees from the original setup to feel like a different perspective.

The 60/30/10 rule is an approach to how much of a certain color is being used in a scene. It theorizes that visual harmony can be achieved by assigning 60% of a composition to a main color, 30% to a secondary color, and 10% to an accent color.

A backlight is a light that emanates from the back of the set, creating a separation between the subject and background. It is an essential part of the three-point lighting system.

A close-up is a type of shot that frames a character’s face and sometimes shoulders. It’s typically used to convey the character’s expressions and emotional state.

A dutch angle shot  type of shot that films a character with a tilted camera. It’s often used to reflect the character’s imbalanced state of mind or an imbalanced world.

An extreme long shot is a type of shot that is typically used as an establishing shot, especially with a scene taking place in a new location or environment. It’s used to convey scale and distance, and is also called an extreme wide shot.

A fill light is a secondary light that helps to soften the harsh shadows created by the primary light, or key light. It’s part of the three-point lighting system.

A key light is the primary light source in a shot. It’s   used in the three-point lighting system in filmmaking.

A medium shot is a type of shot that frames a character from the waist up. It’s the most frequently used shot in filmmaking.

An over-the-shoulder shot is a type of shot that frames two characters with the camera placed behind the shoulder of one character who is directly facing the other character.

A point-of-view shot is a type of shot that allows the viewer to see what a character sees from their point of view.

The three-point lighting system is a popular filmmaking lighting scheme that uses key, fill, and backlights. The key is the primary lighting source with fills to reduce the harshness of the key and backlights to create depth in the shot.